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Attention Deficit Hyper operation Disorder agreeing to Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain based and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be characterized as a disorder in which affects ones self control; primary aspects include difficulty with attention, impulse control, and operation levels ordinarily diagnosed prior to the age of 7yrs. Of age (Willoughby, 2003).
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There are primarily three sub-types of Adhd. Inattentive sub-type 1 is Adhd which those who manifest inattention without the nearnessy of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also Adhd sub-type 2 with symptomolgy associated to hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally there is Adhd combined sub-type (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will utilize data that represents all subtypes in assorted degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the individual, educational, family, and collective development as well as issues of collective justice and cultural issues for those children who suffer from this disorder.
Historically the modern symptoms of Adhd were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe 2001), by English doctor George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was a dramatic increase in investigate of characteristics that are similar to modern day Adhd symptomology. Straight through out the early years of investigate there was even investigate and investigations into healing conditions which promoted swelling in safe bet aspects of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As investigate evolved so did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping identifiable factors believed to conduce to the causation of Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine within the brains of those with Adhd and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as Adhd causal agents; however a specific causal agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain operation is considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in those with Adhd and there is also decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, 2005). agreeing to Barkley (2005), psychological characteristics of Adhd are that it is about the "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit from what may happen later based upon what they do now; which can be compared to a "time near sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have difficulty identifying their past, establishment for the future, organizing, scheduling, and working independently, with collective and occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties when intermingled with the development of the individual that could clearly cause great difficulties especially when enrolled in formalized schooling and onward into the demands of school and adulthood.
The prevalence rates about the determination of Adhd has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % depending upon the community, types of populations, and areas of determination (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Adhd is one of the most common childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of boys and 1.5 % of girls have Adhd (Singh, 2002). It cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat Adhd every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under consistent ensue up agreeing to Barkley (2005) include;
1. Genetics
2. Premature Birth
3. Traumatic Brain Injury
4. Spine and Brain Infections
5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy
6. Early exposure to lead
7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity
Because Adhd is a representation of corporeal imperfections within the brain and verily manifests a decrease of operation in the pre-frontal lobe regions; safe bet medicine options with amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to increase brain operation (Barkley, 2005). The size and anomalies within the brain have been verified and examined Straight through many technological processes such as Positron Emission Tomography and Mri scanning (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other corporeal abnormalities of development agreeing to Barkley (2005), include appearances of minute deformities including; longer than mean index finger, third toe that is longer than second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children suffering with Adhd will continue to struggle with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, family, and collective environments a large emotional toll can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack of clear decision making skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children can come to be depressed and exhibit anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors include stubbornness, defiance and at times can be verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005).
According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool children are likely to be rated as inattentive and over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. As many as 40% agreeing to Barkley (2005), may have these problems for up to three to six months, about parents and teachers. agreeing to Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool children truly meet the criteria for Adhd, and (Biederman, 1996), clarified that possibly 10 % of all children meet diagnostic criteria for Adhd (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the symptoms of Adhd appear and the distance of time they last in childhood will decree the severity of its course and determination (Barkley, 2005). Individually there are many distressing problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are prominent to recognize as the individual child develops into school age include;
1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool age
2. Critical directive behavior by parents to control circumstances
3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school staff about child's behavior
4. Problems with learning and reading
5. Decisions to support a child an educational grade
6. Excessive temper tantrums / difficulty in getting child to do chores
7. Social exclusion from activities
According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. Old, children's attention controls, and self control mechanisms begin developing. Increased self control and speech development continues from age 3yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self control processes continue to well create Straight through the age of 4yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together allowing the child to enunciate self-control and Straight through 4 yrs. Of age the child develops the quality to direct attention to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of attention and control over responses emerges and of course is very prominent in identifying task's and working functionally within the educational environment, however; these processes indicated do not emerge for those with Adhd due to the manifestation of hyper-activity and impulsivity around the age of 3 to 4 yrs. Of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. Of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children create into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be retained one grade during their school years. agreeing to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of children with Adhd will manifest comorbidity with learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with Adhd and guide Disorder the percentages increase for a co morbid learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is that agreeing to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those children with Adhd do not gain the literacy skills valuable for early reading and learning. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the discontentment due to lack of quality perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently witnessed by school staff of children with Adhd (Spira & Fischel, 2005).
As children move Straight through adolescents it is abundantly clear that with vast developmental changes; finding ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other demands of adolescents come to be extraordinarily difficult with individual difficulties of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). agreeing to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many difficulties especially;
1. Disorganization
2. Planning long term assignments
3. Completing homework
4. Complying with parental rules.
5. Sustaining attention and focus
Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent and healthy identity, conflicts with parental and scholastic systems can leave an youthful to feel diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into adulthood (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).
Adulthood brings new challenges and agreeing to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the following are just a few of the challenges for adults living with Adhd;
1. Managing money
2. "Zoning out in conversations"
3. Speaking without thinking
4. Procrastination
5. Becoming verily frustrated
Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his theory of Psycho-Social development and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy or we will face isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their disability will continue to confront difficulties with their families, collective relationships, and negative individual perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties could place them at risk to come to be isolated.
The individual within their family is greatly impacted by this developmental disorder. agreeing to Barkley (2005) Adhd is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if a parent has Adhd the child is 8 to 10 times more likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the beginning of preschool attend and administrate their child fairly well, however; parents tend to lose what they feel as control over their child the further the child develops Straight through school. Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents that may be less than safe bet (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006).
Research shows that parental perceptions within the family can clearly have implications about how a child is treated and the negative affects and perceptions that sway the child's developmental stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). agreeing to Maniadaki et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have valuable impact upon children suffering from Adhd due to the likelihood of the parents not obtaining mental health services for their children; the difficulty parents had identifying the impact the child's behavior would have on the child's development; and the parents inability to recognize the severity of the child's symptoms, all have dramatic affects on the child's developmental processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of support siblings bring to each other within a family. agreeing to Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling with Adhd or they can get angry and resentful. These reactions generate dynamic challenges for any family and or individual dealing with Adhd. Other inherent hindering perceptions by parents within the family theory can be identified by comparing Erickson's, Psycho collective Developmental Perspectives (Berger, 2000). agreeing to Erickson, children from the age of 3 yrs. Old to 6 yrs. Of age will create Straight through a series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When the child's curious behavior takes place however, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, (1994) states, that parents may not allow these children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past excessive behavior under general circumstances, and the parents may see their child as an "easy target." agreeing to the evidence, miscalculating the child's natural curious behavior could take place and disallow the child to create in a healthy, "guilt free" way, having valuable affects on their psycho-social development. excessive amounts of guilt can yield valuable amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in variable degrees can clearly lead to negative affects on collective and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).
Other family processes affecting Adhd and development agreeing to Peris & Hinshaw (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse control and inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices do not guarantee valuable (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for Adhd. However, the family interaction patterns and external influences may have a valuable impact on severity and the developmental course of Adhd (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of Adhd children are less affectionate. Other disturbing findings indicate that parents can be more critically demanding and parents independently record a greater tendency to blame their Adhd child for problems they verily had with their spouses; thus proving further that family systemic patterns can play a major role in the perpetuation and affects of Adhd upon child development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course these processes clearly sway a school-age child within their families and external systems in ways which reduce a child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly interact and function within their environment; proving this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of self esteem in areas of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and collective acceptance.
According to Barkley (2005), those with Adhd, at times do not give themselves time to evaluate their emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to detach their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, evaluate them, and analyze them before displaying them publicly aid in self control and is difficult for those suffering from Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from Adhd create a pattern of collective rejection due to inappropriate interactions beginning during formalized schooling agreeing to Barkley (2005). agreeing to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from Adhd lack valuable collective skills that sway the quality of their interactions, such as; verbal & corporeal aggression, disruptive attempts to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon (2001) presents more evidence that collective cognition is clearly affected and children with Adhd can have great difficulty in making clear interpretations of their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibited collective contact, and a dysfunction in psycho-social development. agreeing to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years old need to create belief that allow them to feel as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are excluded due to their Adhd manifestations of behavior, be given the chance to participate and prove themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" As these children create into adolescents and adults, one can guess when comparing Adhd behavior and collective reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that adolescents exertion to find their roles in the world and if they fail, role obscuring develops (Berger, 2000). obscuring for those suffering from Adhd would come verily due to their exclusion from collective groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents to find their role and their identity; they must interact with others and feel proper in their participation (Berger, 2000). further into adulthood Erickson in Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will seek intimacy with others or come to be isolated. The factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those developing fear rejection and discontentment (Berger, 2000). Unfortunately, prior collective experiences of those suffering from Adhd can be littered with collective rejection, feelings of discontentment and unacceptance due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & Mumma, 1999), these authors agreeing to Nixon (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / youthful nature of a child's behavior with Adhd contributes greatly to interpersonal problems.
In regards to collective justice and cultural issues; agreeing to Bender (2006), African American children may be under represented and under diagnosed in regards to Adhd. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006) agreeing to Bender (2006), claim that as science is pursuing new technological processes to diagnose and treat Adhd, cultures like the African American society are subjected to propaganda, suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and negative stereotyping about mental illness; thus forming cultural decisions to avoid determination and medicine of Adhd. This cultural-lens, based upon discriminatory and fear based experiences with the dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and aid African American children (Bender, 2006). These decisions agreeing to experts (Bailey, 2006), is contributing to high rates of African American children disproportionately over represented in medicinal programs and disproportionate amounts of African American children over represented in the criminal justice theory (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern about those who suffer from Adhd. agreeing to Visser & Lesesne, (2005), Adhd determination among males was reported significantly more often in families with incomes below the poverty threshold than in families with incomes at or above the poverty threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and consistent statement of risk for our developing children.
In conclusion, I believe that Adhd seems to be an elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This disorder for my self is so destructive because of its manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if represented to safe bet degrees are excellent for destroying social, educational, emotional and individual development across the life span. Because our lives are so dependent upon not just our biological building but also our collective and environmental interaction; this disorder can be serious and detrimentally disruptive. I do however believe that new technologies are hopeful in understanding this disability in greater measures. I also have gained ideas about the new data about neuro-plastisity and the changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel this may be a inherent frontier of investigate that should be a priority in great understanding how the brain can change forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions.
L.J. Riley Jr. Bsw, Llmsw
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